CONTENT FAQS
Were the Venetians considered Italians in the past?
Venice today is part of Italy and Venetians are also considered Italians. However, back in the 17th century, Italy was composed of many different kingdoms. There was no unified Italy. Venice was just one of the many powerful kingdoms in the Italian peninsula.
What is a republic?
A republic is a nation governed by elected representatives. Its head of state is not a king or queen but a president who could be voted out of office.
Why was Venice known as an Aristocratic Republic?
Venice was known as an Aristocratic Republic because nobles were chosen by lot to be in various committees. Venice also had a head of state, the Doge, who was elected by nobles to hold office for life. Unlike monarchs, the Doge could be deposed by the Venetian nobles who sat in various committees.
What are the periods in European history as covered in the Venetian case study?
The period of European history as covered in the case study of Venice is from the Middle or Medieval Ages to the Age of Enlightenment:
Historians generally agree that the beginning of the Early Middle Ages is marked by the fall of the Roman Empire. Europe at that time was a 'melting pot' of ethnic groups. These ethnic groups did not occupy any fixed territory or constitute individual nations of any kind. They were in contact with one another and with the cultures in the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and even further east. These ethnic groups were also fairly mobile: they displaced some ethnic groups and were in turn displaced by other ethnic groups - including those from Asia. The spread of Christianity gave these multilingual, multicultural groups of Europe a sense of shared identity and a common language of communication - Latin.
The High Middle Ages was so called because historians believed most cultural, economic and political achievements of the Middle Ages took place during that time. This period can be understood as the period in which Europe's continental culture was defined. This is also the period when large-scale migrations of individual cultures and ethnic groups halted, as the various ethnic groups adopted a more sedentary lifestyle. During the High Middle Ages, most ethnic groups defined themselves historically as the cultural and social descendants of the classical world.
The ‘rebirth' of classical culture in the 14th and 15th centuries was not a departure from the Middle Ages but a continuation of the late medieval process of standardisation that was rooted in the myth that European culture derives from the classical world. The Renaissance was a period when literature and the Arts flourished; and new ideas were discovered examined and developed. The time frame for the Renaissance varied among states. It began in the Italian states such as Venice, and eventually spread to other parts of Europe, including Germany, France and England. In education, from late-16th century to the late-18th century, there was much emphasis on science and knowledge to improve the people’s way of life.
What were the key periods in Venice's history?
The 12 centuries of Venice's history from 600 to 1800 can be divided into approximately three periods. The first 400 years witnessed Venice's gradual rise to power and influence. The next 500 years (late-1000 to 1500) saw Venice at its peak. This was followed by a gradual decline from 1500 onwards, as Venice felt the effects of both changing external circumstances and internal weaknesses.
However, it is important to remember that the decline of Venice overlapped with its rise. Though Venice's peak was from 1000 to 1500, signs of decline already existed in the late 15th century. Although Venice's banking and financial services were thriving in that period, there were signs of decline in the political and social facets of the city-state. Venice's trade and economy rapidly declined in the 17th century with the rise of the Dutch and the English as major trading rivals in the East. Therefore, it is difficult to state a specific time frame for the decline of Venice.
How was the political system in Venice like?
The type of political system in Venice was the republic. The term ‘republic’ was derived from the Latin term, ‘res-publica’ which means public affairs or public interest. It was a system where a state was governed in the interest of the public and not for a particular noble family or faction. Today, we use the term ‘republic’ to mean a country which is governed by elected representatives and led by either a Prime Minister or President. In medieval Europe, the definition of republic was vague and was not limited to a specific form of government. For example, the Polish government in the 17th and early-18th century was ruled by a king and yet it was called the Republic of Poland. There were also other types of Republican states in Europe which included Switzerland, the Netherlands, Florence and Venice.
Venice stood apart from the other republics because it most closely resembled modern day democracy. This was despite the fact that only the nobles engaged in matters of governance. While the other republics had a king or faction controlling the government, Venice ensured equality through its system of balloting and election. The leaders of Venice were selected from the Great Council, which consisted of only nobles. For this reason, historians call such a political system the aristocratic republic. It was aristocratic because only nobles were eligible for election. However it was also a republic as equality was practised in selecting these nobles for government posts. This was especially so in the period before the 15th century. From the 15th century, certain families began to dominate the government. This was one of the causes of Venice's decline.
What was the leadership selection like in Venice?
The success of the selection system for government posts in Venice was often highly regarded by the other states. Venice ensured that no one individual could lobby for any post through its balloting and election systems.
There was no assurance that a noble would become richer when he was appointed to a government post. Certain government posts were profitable but others were not. For example, a Captain-General of Navy could have a share of the spoils of war. On the other hand, posts like Ambassador and Doge could be a drain on one's wealth. As government officials, they were expected to pay for certain expenses when in office. The Doge, for example, was expected to pay for all the major government projects and festivals. For this reason, the nobles were never allowed to choose their office.
During the rise of Venice, the nobles were willing to take up the government posts given to them. This was because of the prestige that came with them. The post of Doge was much sought after despite the heavy costs the bearer of the post could incur. This is because other than holding the government posts, the nobles were allowed to have secondary jobs. Most of them thus had commercial interests and were actively involved in trade. They were often able to derive large profits from their secondary jobs.
What practical policies did the Venetian leaders implement?
Venetian leaders were primarily concerned with furthering the interests of the city-state. So long as their actions benefited Venice, they were prepared to accommodate and compromise. Despite opposition from many European Christian states, Venice continued to trade and establish friendly relations with the Muslim powers. This flexibility served Venice well in its long history. At the same time, it also meant that Venice was despised and detested by many of its contemporaries. Venetian leaders had, on occasions, resorted to dubious practices, such as collaborating with pirates, to garner maximum advantage. This pattern of behaviour was to have serious repercussions, especially when Venice was weak, as most of its neighbouring states did not come to its rescue.
How did Venice establish trade monopoly in her region?
Venice used its navy to destroy trade competitors such as Genoa, Florence and Pisa on the Italian mainland, to control the sea-lanes and to enforce maritime laws favourable to itself. One of their coercive measures was compelling all ships plying the Northern Adriatic Sea to call at its ports. This enabled Venetian traders to be the middleman between buyers and sellers. The government could also levy taxes on goods. In essence, naval power made Venice a major trading centre.
It is worth noting that Venetian shipping and commerce were not all about luxury items like diamonds. While these had a market in the large neighbouring empires, the bread and butter of Venetian commerce lay in the shipment of essential goods like wheat and salt between cities. Venice thus did not rely completely on the trade of eastern goods for its survival. It also monopolised the trade in salt which was in great demand in Europe. Salt was used as a preservative and was not easily available in many parts of Central Europe.
What kinds of trade and financial services did Venice offer?
With its fabulous wealth derived from its trade monopolies, Venice offered banking and financial services to other traders from the late 14th century.
It is worth noting that Venetian leaders were perceptive enough to realise that the development of their city-state as a financial centre depended on strict supervision of the industry by the government. This would prevent the collapse of any bank from damaging its reputation as a safe place for trading and banking. The government created a government-owned clearing-house in the 16th century called the Banco della Piazza. The government protected all deposits and honoured the validity of all banking credits, thus maintaining the solid reputation of the Venetian banks and bringing them much profit. From the 15th century, the insurance industry also started in Venice.
The concentration on trade and financial services also stimulated the development of industrial activities. There was more money available to the people through the services provided. Venice became renowned as a city of skilled craftsmen and reached a new peak of artistic creativity during the Renaissance.
How are Venetian leaders like in the history of Venice?
The early leaders of Venice were actively involved in trade. While trade brought about personal profit for the leaders, their involvement also led to prosperity and progress for Venice. Venice was thus able to thrive as a centre of trade between the East and West.
The same cannot be said of Venetian leaders from the late 15th century to late 18th century. These leaders dominated government posts and brought over the profitable posts to further their own personal interests.
They also became very interested in accumulating land on the Italian mainland for their own benefit. This diverted Venice's attention from resisting the frequent Ottoman attacks. When Napoleon's troops marched into Venice, the leaders of Venice fled to the Italian mainland to safeguard their properties.
What is a city-state?
The term 'city-state' is often used to refer to an independent city that thrived as a centre of political economic and cultural importance. The term, 'city-state', originated in England in the late 19th century. Thereafter, it has been used to describe several historical cities like Athens of ancient Greece and medieval Venice. Venice was a good example of a city-state in the Middle Ages because it was a key commercial centre and had a political system which was the closest to a democracy during the Middle Ages. Venice was also a good example of a city during the Renaissance as its buildings and many other aspects of its lifestyle reflected the richness of the Arts during the Renaissance period.
What was the League of Cambrai?
The League of Cambrai was named after the location where the alliance against Venice was formed. This League was the result of a collaboration among states in the Italian mainland (such as Farrara, Mantua and the Duke of Savoy), and rulers of larger states, like the King of France, the Hapsburg Emperor, the King of Hungary, the King of Spain and the Pope. The League was formed for the purpose of launching a crusade, a war waged in the name of religion, against the Ottoman Empire. However, its true intention was to destroy Venice and share its territorial possessions among the allies. Venice was identified by the League as a traitor of Christianity because it collaborated with the Ottomans by providing them with resources and manpower in exchange for trading concessions in North Africa.
In early-1509, the members of the League threatened Venice on two fronts the northeast and the southwest. Initially, Venice tried to split the League by offering territories to its members in return for their promise to withdraw from the alliance. However, Venice was unsuccessful as the alliance was determined to bring about its fall. Realising that its initial attempt was futile, Venice then called on the other mainland states to collaborate in the name of protecting the Italian peninsula from European powers like France. However, this attempt was also unsuccessful. In many of the confrontations, Venice proved too weak to defend itself. Many Venetian nobles who had settled in the mainland withdrew into the lagoon as the city-state prepared for war. It appeared that an attack on the lagoon was imminent.
The League began to fall apart when the Pope, on realising the ambitions of France, decided to turn against it. Venice then made use of this opportunity to ally with the Pope against France. This signalled the collapse of the League and the end of the threat against the city-state. In the end, Venice managed to regain most of the territories it had lost in this period.
What was Venice's connection with the Byzantine Empire?
Venice started out as a vassal state belonging to the Byzantine Empire. When the Byzantine Empire started to establish itself as the Eastern Roman Empire, it was more concerned with maintaining internal stability and expanding its territorial control. For those states that were further from Constantinople, the centre of the Byzantine government, their acknowledgement of its overlordship required them to send tribute and offer military help whenever necessary. While the Byzantine Emperor was busy consolidating his rule in newly acquired territories, those already in his possession were left to develop on their own. Venice was one such example.
The Byzantine Emperor only returned to assert control over Venice when the Franks threatened to take over the control of the lagoon in 810. With this, Venice renewed its acknowledgment of the Byzantine Emperor as its overlord. Once this relationship was re-established, Venice continued to develop under the protection of the Byzantine Empire with little intervention. Instead of appointing an official to rule Venice on behalf of the Byzantine Emperor; the Venetians were allowed to elect their own leader, known as the Doge, as they had provided aid to the Byzantine Empire in times of need.
The recognition of the Byzantine overlordship was important for Venice because it allowed the city-state to enjoy relative peace and to develop. The Empire also granted Venice special trading rights in return for its military and maritime support. When the Byzantine Empire was weak, Venice even took over the role of patrolling the Adriatic Sea to protect trade and the sovereignty of her overlord.
This relationship changed when Venice grew stronger and looked to expand its territorial control to advance trade. The opportunity came when Venice was approached to provide maritime transport for the Fourth Crusade in 1204. The original objective of the Crusade was to free Jerusalem from Muslim rule. As the army gathered in Venice to be transported to Jerusalem, Venice realised that the Crusaders did not have the money to hire its service. The Doge, Enrico Dandolo, then decided to capitalise on the situation by asking the Crusaders to help Venice conquer certain territories as a form of repayment for services rendered by the city-state. These territories included Constantinople.
The Byzantine Empire was a pale shadow of her former self although it was still Venice's overlord. This was partly due to the power struggle for the Byzantine throne. When the new emperor was enthroned, he favoured Genoa and Pisa (who had helped him in the quest for the throne) instead of Venice. Such polices were disadvantageous to Venice as the favourable trading terms it used to enjoy in Constantinople were revoked. This affected Venice's trade in the Black Sea adversely. In order to preserve and promote Venice's commercial interests, Doge Enrico Dandolo seized the opportunity to obtain the help of the Crusaders to sack Constantinople. Despite Constantinople being a Christian state, Doge Enrico Dandolo was able to persuade the Crusaders to help by offering them a large share of the war booty following their success. With the success at Constantinople, Venice ceased to be a feudal state of the Byzantine Empire and became instead an empire itself.
What was Venice's main competitor, Genoa, like?
Venice's main competitor Genoa was a city-state located on the Italian peninsula. It too was dependent on trade for its wealth but its political system differed from Venice. Instead of selecting their leaders, the Genoese nobility entrusted the highest rank in the government to men they employed to rule the city-state. In today’s terms, the concept worked somewhat like a Chief Executive Officer running a large organisation. The Genoese adopted this system because they wanted to prevent _rivalry among the nobility. By employing a third party to rule the city-state, they hoped to achieve fairness in the government. Even so, Genoa was plagued with internal strife and political unrests. This greatly affected its development and was the main reason for its inability to continue to compete with Venice after the Fourth Genoese war of 1378.
Like the Venetians, the Genoese were skilful sailors who possessed a sharp acumen for trade and business. Besides being active in the eastern Mediterranean Sea, the Genoese expressed an interest in extending trade into the Middle East. Like the Venetians, the Genoese were particularly competitive in gaining good trading terms from Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, by offering maritime transport services and soldiers to the Byzantine Emperor.
In its rivalry with Venice and other maritime city-states like Pisa and Florence, Genoa was rather piratical in its behaviour. This was the norm among the other maritime city-states including Venice, during the medieval times. To begin with, Genoa would try to obtain control in certain territories crucial for trade. These could be ports situated along the Coasts or islands in the Mediterranean Sea. Once they were in control, they would adopt protectionist policies against traders from other states, sometimes attacking and confiscating goods from non-Genoese traders who called at their ports. They would also launch surprise attacks on Venetian ships passing through their ports. In addition, Genoese traders who were sailing from port to port would attack ships flying the Venetian flag in the hope of confiscating the lucrative goods on board.
This war was the most significant for several reasons. Firstly, it gave rise to a change in Venice’s foreign policy. During the war, Genoa had formed an alliance with Venice’s neighbours, the King of Hungary and the Lord of Padua. This alliance was threatening because Venice found itself surrounded by enemies on three fronts, with Genoa attacking at Venice's doorstep. It was after this war that Venice decided to participate in the power struggle in the mainland with the objective of building a buffer zone around the lagoon for its protection.
Secondly, it was through this war that Venice’s weaknesses were uncovered. Following the plague of 1374, there were fewer people to be conscripted; and those who survived were also less willing to participate in the war. Another weakness in the social fabric of Venice was in the gap between the nobles and the commoners. Having acquired more wealth, the nobles had become arrogant and distant from the latter. This made the commoners less willing to fight under the command of the nobles, whom they once regarded as leaders.
This crisis was only resolved when Doge Andrea Contarini called upon an outstanding commoner to serve alongside a noble in the command of the fleets. Doge Andrea Contarini also won the support of the Venetians by turning their attention to their common enemy, Genoa. Eventually, Venice succeeded in defending the lagoon. However, Venice could not be considered to have won the Fourth Genoese War. This was because both Venice and Genoa suffered heavy losses. Based on the terms of peace, they were keener to end the confrontation than to negotiate for territories or trade terms. This showed how weakened and tired Venice and Genoa were as a result of the war. After this war, Genoa plunged into internal strife and civil war and did not return to challenge Venice again.
What is the Black Death and how did it impact Venice?
The plague is a disease that is spread by the fleas found on rats and other rodents. It was known as the Black Death in medieval times, a reference to its ability to wipe out an entire population within a short span of time. There are a number of variations of the disease but generally, its victims developed fever and swellings around the armpits and groin. They eventually die of blood poisoning unless their immune system could overcome the bacterium.
During the medieval times, it was said that the plague was transmitted from Asia to Europe via the trade routes. The population of Venice suffered their first bout of plague in 1348 resulting in the death of half its population. The disease struck Venice twice more during the 16th and 17th century: in 1575, killing 51,000 of its people; and in 1630, claiming 50,000 more lives.
The plagues were detrimental to Venice politically, militarily and economically. As the plagues did not choose its victims, both the rich and the poor were affected. Since the nobles constituted the ruling class in Venice, a reduction in their numbers affected Venice's ability to find nobles of suitable calibre to serve as leaders. This, in turn, affected the quality of the decisions made by the government.
With its population decimated and her territories expanding, Venice was also unable to depend on its own people to defend the lagoon or protect her territories gained through conquests. This explained why mercenaries were employed as a solution to Venice's need for soldiers from the 15th century onwards.
As a trading port, Venice was even more vulnerable to the disease. Trading ships brought the disease with them after visiting places already infected with it. Trade suffered. The impact was not limited to people (including the traders) dying from the disease, but potential traders also shunned the city-state for fear of being infected as well. Those who were yet to be infected also preferred to flee the lagoon for their own protection. As a result of reduced trade, Venice's economy suffered.
Since there was no cure, Venice handled the disease the same way most of the city-states were doing then. It set up quarantine hospitals in far-away islands in the lagoon to minimise the spread of the disease. When the disease was rife, all ships arriving in Venice were required to call at these islands for screening. However, this only served to encourage the spread of the diseases on these islands. Those who died of the disease were also brought to these islands to be buried.
What was the Ottoman Empire?
The Ottoman Empire was a Turkish Muslim empire that comprised large parts of the Middle East as well as territories in Europe from the 14th to the 20th centuries. It originated around 1300 as a small Turkish state in Asia Minor and defeated the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire in 1453 to become the predominant power in theMediterranean region.
Named after the empire’s founder Osman, the Ottomans were a nomadic Turkish tribe which originated from Central Asia. In the early 14th century, it ruled a small territory in Eastern Turkey. The Ottomans were allocated a parcel of land by a Turkish tribe for assisting them in a battle against the Byzantines. They were one of several Turkish tribes who were a constant threat to the Byzantine Empire. The Ottomans also competed with rival Turkish tribes for territories. In addition, the Byzantines and other smaller Christian states also formed alliances with the Ottomans, who were predominantly Muslim, in order to defeat rival kingdoms.
By 1400 the Ottomans managed to extend their influence over much of Anatolia, the Asian part of modern day Turkey. The Ottomans continued to expand while their rivals experienced internal conflicts or were preoccupied with fighting one another. As a result, the Ottomans territorial expansion incorporated parts of rival Turkish kingdoms and even outlying regions of the Byzantine Empire.
In 1453 Sultan Mehmed II captured Constantinople and renamed it Istanbul. The Ottoman Empire expanded under Sultan Selim I (1512-1520) and his Son, Sultan Suleyman (1520-1566). The empire experience its greatest expansion under the latter's rule. At its height, the Ottoman Empire controlled North Africa, the Middle East, the Mediterranean and the Balkans.
How was the Ottoman's relationship with Venice?
The Ottomans’ relations with Venice were initially cordial but gradually deteriorated. This was because Ottoman expansion was, in part, at the expense of Venetian possessions and prosperity. Some factors that influenced Ottoman-Venetian relations were the personalities and policies of the respective Sultans and Doges, as well as the political situation in Europe at that time. For example, Ottoman rulers like Sultan Mehmed II and Sultan Suleyman embarked on numerous military campaigns to expand the empire. Like Venice, Ottoman motives for establishing alliances were usually out of convenience rather than genuine attempts to establish diplomatic relations.
With the capture of Constantinople, the Ottomans succeeded in controlling the lucrative maritime trade in the Mediterranean. Consequently, Venetian trade dominance was adversely affected. Venetian traders continued to trade in ports controlled by the Ottomans, subjected to the goodwill of the Sultan. When relations between the two powers soured, commerce and movement in Ottoman-controlled territories were greatly restricted. Turkish pirates were also given authority to attack and plunder Venetian (and other European) vessels. It became evident to the Venetians that they would not be able to defeat the Ottomans as the latter possessed a much larger standing army. In the 16th century, the Venetians pursued a policy of conciliation towards the Ottomans. However; Venice was forced to engage in conflict due to unreasonable terms set by the Ottoman Sultan and to demands made by various European states to engage the Ottoman enemy. The humiliating treaties signed by Venice in 1540 and 1573 drained her treasury, restricted trade and movement of her merchants and legitimised the loss of Venetian territories to the Ottomans.
On hindsight, the Fourth Crusade led by Doge Enrico Dandolo, which turned into the Conquest of Constantinople instead of freeing Jerusalem from Muslim control, could have contributed to the eventual downfall of Venice because the Byzantine Empire was weakened so much that she was unable to resist the invading Ottomans. Thus, the buffer which protected Venice and Europe from the Ottomans was removed.
Why was the rise of Napoleon important in European history? Napoleon was important in European history because he promoted the ideas of the French Revolution that threatened the stability of the old European kingdoms. The ideas of the French revolution included such rights as the right of the common people to choose their own leaders. It was revolutionary because in the past, the leaders of most nations were kings and nobles who were not elected by the people.
What lessons can Singapore learn from Venice?
While it is obvious that conditions between Venice in the past and Singapore today are very different, some basic principles of success can be drawn from a study of these two countries. Good governance, sound principles and a committed citizenry are principles which are timeless and universally applicable across states and cultures.
Capable and Committed Leadership
The rise of Venice was possible because its leaders were willing to place state interests above their personal interests. They were forward-looking and capable. Later, the leaders who came to power were neither able to continue the hard work of their predecessors nor had their perseverance. They neglected their responsibilities and chose to adopt lavish lifestyles. This eventually brought about the downfall of the city-state.
As seen in Venice, good leadership may not continue forever. It is the duty of every citizen to elect into government the right persons who would lead by example. Venice was not able to sustain its dominance of the Mediterranean Sea partly because of the weak process of selecting its military leaders.
Adaptability
When Venice was at its peak, the Venetians kept themselves updated on what was happening around them. They kept up with the times and were always improving themselves, as seen in the new initiatives Venetians introduced in the banking services. They were flexible and adapted well to internal and external circumstances when the need arose. This can be seen in the varied approaches they took in establishing relations with weak and strong states.
Likewise, for Singapore to prosper, it has to be aware of the changes in the world and be quick to respond to them. It is important for every citizen to upgrade his skills and seize new opportunities.
Good International Relations
When the Ottomans attacked the Venetians, none of the other Italian city-states came to help the Venetians, even though they could be the next states to be threatened if Venice were defeated. This was because Venice was arrogant and dubious in its relations with these states. While some of its policies were pragmatic and beneficial, others, like collaboration with pirates, made Venice lose its credibility.
From the experience of Venice, we see that it is important for a country to have friends in the international community. There is a need to understand other countries and work closely with them, and to build up a reputation of being trustworthy and friendly.
Strong Defence Force
Though a country has to maintain good relations with other countries, it must also be well-prepared for war. This is only possible with a strong defence system and a reliable military force. Unfortunately, the mercenaries who served Venice were not loyal to the city-state, as Venice was not their homeland. In the face of defeat, they left Venice instead of defending it. Even the Venetian leaders themselves were more concerned for their own safety and the safety of their families than for the city-state. It is thus important for a country to provide an all-rounded education of the importance of defence to the general public.
A Committed Citizenry
At the height of its glory, the Venetians took pride in and committed themselves to the well-being of Venice. They were prepared to sacrifice their wealth and even their lives to counter Genoa's threat in the 14th century. Nevertheless, complacency set in and the subsequent generations of Venetians began to take success for granted. This was a major reason for their failure.
Singapore faced a few major economic setbacks in 1985, 1997 and 2007. On these occasions, the government introduced measures such as wage cuts to tide the country over the bad times. Singaporeans, however, rallied behind the government and showed their full support. This allowed the whole nation to recover from the economic downturn faster than expected. Singapore may face similar difficulties in future. Singaporeans must therefore be prepared to make sacrifices when the country faces setbacks.
The success of Singapore did not happen by chance. What we have today is the result of the hard work and sacrifice of our predecessors. The infrastructure of Singapore can be built by the government, and talent can be imported, but it is the commitment of each citizen that makes a country prosper.
Venice today is part of Italy and Venetians are also considered Italians. However, back in the 17th century, Italy was composed of many different kingdoms. There was no unified Italy. Venice was just one of the many powerful kingdoms in the Italian peninsula.
What is a republic?
A republic is a nation governed by elected representatives. Its head of state is not a king or queen but a president who could be voted out of office.
Why was Venice known as an Aristocratic Republic?
Venice was known as an Aristocratic Republic because nobles were chosen by lot to be in various committees. Venice also had a head of state, the Doge, who was elected by nobles to hold office for life. Unlike monarchs, the Doge could be deposed by the Venetian nobles who sat in various committees.
What are the periods in European history as covered in the Venetian case study?
The period of European history as covered in the case study of Venice is from the Middle or Medieval Ages to the Age of Enlightenment:
- Early Middle Ages from about 350 to 1050
- High Middle Ages from about 1050 to 1300
- Late Middle Ages from about 1300 to 1450
- Early Modern Ages/ Renaissance from about 1450 to late 1700s
Historians generally agree that the beginning of the Early Middle Ages is marked by the fall of the Roman Empire. Europe at that time was a 'melting pot' of ethnic groups. These ethnic groups did not occupy any fixed territory or constitute individual nations of any kind. They were in contact with one another and with the cultures in the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and even further east. These ethnic groups were also fairly mobile: they displaced some ethnic groups and were in turn displaced by other ethnic groups - including those from Asia. The spread of Christianity gave these multilingual, multicultural groups of Europe a sense of shared identity and a common language of communication - Latin.
The High Middle Ages was so called because historians believed most cultural, economic and political achievements of the Middle Ages took place during that time. This period can be understood as the period in which Europe's continental culture was defined. This is also the period when large-scale migrations of individual cultures and ethnic groups halted, as the various ethnic groups adopted a more sedentary lifestyle. During the High Middle Ages, most ethnic groups defined themselves historically as the cultural and social descendants of the classical world.
The ‘rebirth' of classical culture in the 14th and 15th centuries was not a departure from the Middle Ages but a continuation of the late medieval process of standardisation that was rooted in the myth that European culture derives from the classical world. The Renaissance was a period when literature and the Arts flourished; and new ideas were discovered examined and developed. The time frame for the Renaissance varied among states. It began in the Italian states such as Venice, and eventually spread to other parts of Europe, including Germany, France and England. In education, from late-16th century to the late-18th century, there was much emphasis on science and knowledge to improve the people’s way of life.
What were the key periods in Venice's history?
The 12 centuries of Venice's history from 600 to 1800 can be divided into approximately three periods. The first 400 years witnessed Venice's gradual rise to power and influence. The next 500 years (late-1000 to 1500) saw Venice at its peak. This was followed by a gradual decline from 1500 onwards, as Venice felt the effects of both changing external circumstances and internal weaknesses.
However, it is important to remember that the decline of Venice overlapped with its rise. Though Venice's peak was from 1000 to 1500, signs of decline already existed in the late 15th century. Although Venice's banking and financial services were thriving in that period, there were signs of decline in the political and social facets of the city-state. Venice's trade and economy rapidly declined in the 17th century with the rise of the Dutch and the English as major trading rivals in the East. Therefore, it is difficult to state a specific time frame for the decline of Venice.
How was the political system in Venice like?
The type of political system in Venice was the republic. The term ‘republic’ was derived from the Latin term, ‘res-publica’ which means public affairs or public interest. It was a system where a state was governed in the interest of the public and not for a particular noble family or faction. Today, we use the term ‘republic’ to mean a country which is governed by elected representatives and led by either a Prime Minister or President. In medieval Europe, the definition of republic was vague and was not limited to a specific form of government. For example, the Polish government in the 17th and early-18th century was ruled by a king and yet it was called the Republic of Poland. There were also other types of Republican states in Europe which included Switzerland, the Netherlands, Florence and Venice.
Venice stood apart from the other republics because it most closely resembled modern day democracy. This was despite the fact that only the nobles engaged in matters of governance. While the other republics had a king or faction controlling the government, Venice ensured equality through its system of balloting and election. The leaders of Venice were selected from the Great Council, which consisted of only nobles. For this reason, historians call such a political system the aristocratic republic. It was aristocratic because only nobles were eligible for election. However it was also a republic as equality was practised in selecting these nobles for government posts. This was especially so in the period before the 15th century. From the 15th century, certain families began to dominate the government. This was one of the causes of Venice's decline.
What was the leadership selection like in Venice?
The success of the selection system for government posts in Venice was often highly regarded by the other states. Venice ensured that no one individual could lobby for any post through its balloting and election systems.
There was no assurance that a noble would become richer when he was appointed to a government post. Certain government posts were profitable but others were not. For example, a Captain-General of Navy could have a share of the spoils of war. On the other hand, posts like Ambassador and Doge could be a drain on one's wealth. As government officials, they were expected to pay for certain expenses when in office. The Doge, for example, was expected to pay for all the major government projects and festivals. For this reason, the nobles were never allowed to choose their office.
During the rise of Venice, the nobles were willing to take up the government posts given to them. This was because of the prestige that came with them. The post of Doge was much sought after despite the heavy costs the bearer of the post could incur. This is because other than holding the government posts, the nobles were allowed to have secondary jobs. Most of them thus had commercial interests and were actively involved in trade. They were often able to derive large profits from their secondary jobs.
What practical policies did the Venetian leaders implement?
Venetian leaders were primarily concerned with furthering the interests of the city-state. So long as their actions benefited Venice, they were prepared to accommodate and compromise. Despite opposition from many European Christian states, Venice continued to trade and establish friendly relations with the Muslim powers. This flexibility served Venice well in its long history. At the same time, it also meant that Venice was despised and detested by many of its contemporaries. Venetian leaders had, on occasions, resorted to dubious practices, such as collaborating with pirates, to garner maximum advantage. This pattern of behaviour was to have serious repercussions, especially when Venice was weak, as most of its neighbouring states did not come to its rescue.
How did Venice establish trade monopoly in her region?
Venice used its navy to destroy trade competitors such as Genoa, Florence and Pisa on the Italian mainland, to control the sea-lanes and to enforce maritime laws favourable to itself. One of their coercive measures was compelling all ships plying the Northern Adriatic Sea to call at its ports. This enabled Venetian traders to be the middleman between buyers and sellers. The government could also levy taxes on goods. In essence, naval power made Venice a major trading centre.
It is worth noting that Venetian shipping and commerce were not all about luxury items like diamonds. While these had a market in the large neighbouring empires, the bread and butter of Venetian commerce lay in the shipment of essential goods like wheat and salt between cities. Venice thus did not rely completely on the trade of eastern goods for its survival. It also monopolised the trade in salt which was in great demand in Europe. Salt was used as a preservative and was not easily available in many parts of Central Europe.
What kinds of trade and financial services did Venice offer?
With its fabulous wealth derived from its trade monopolies, Venice offered banking and financial services to other traders from the late 14th century.
It is worth noting that Venetian leaders were perceptive enough to realise that the development of their city-state as a financial centre depended on strict supervision of the industry by the government. This would prevent the collapse of any bank from damaging its reputation as a safe place for trading and banking. The government created a government-owned clearing-house in the 16th century called the Banco della Piazza. The government protected all deposits and honoured the validity of all banking credits, thus maintaining the solid reputation of the Venetian banks and bringing them much profit. From the 15th century, the insurance industry also started in Venice.
The concentration on trade and financial services also stimulated the development of industrial activities. There was more money available to the people through the services provided. Venice became renowned as a city of skilled craftsmen and reached a new peak of artistic creativity during the Renaissance.
How are Venetian leaders like in the history of Venice?
The early leaders of Venice were actively involved in trade. While trade brought about personal profit for the leaders, their involvement also led to prosperity and progress for Venice. Venice was thus able to thrive as a centre of trade between the East and West.
The same cannot be said of Venetian leaders from the late 15th century to late 18th century. These leaders dominated government posts and brought over the profitable posts to further their own personal interests.
They also became very interested in accumulating land on the Italian mainland for their own benefit. This diverted Venice's attention from resisting the frequent Ottoman attacks. When Napoleon's troops marched into Venice, the leaders of Venice fled to the Italian mainland to safeguard their properties.
What is a city-state?
The term 'city-state' is often used to refer to an independent city that thrived as a centre of political economic and cultural importance. The term, 'city-state', originated in England in the late 19th century. Thereafter, it has been used to describe several historical cities like Athens of ancient Greece and medieval Venice. Venice was a good example of a city-state in the Middle Ages because it was a key commercial centre and had a political system which was the closest to a democracy during the Middle Ages. Venice was also a good example of a city during the Renaissance as its buildings and many other aspects of its lifestyle reflected the richness of the Arts during the Renaissance period.
What was the League of Cambrai?
The League of Cambrai was named after the location where the alliance against Venice was formed. This League was the result of a collaboration among states in the Italian mainland (such as Farrara, Mantua and the Duke of Savoy), and rulers of larger states, like the King of France, the Hapsburg Emperor, the King of Hungary, the King of Spain and the Pope. The League was formed for the purpose of launching a crusade, a war waged in the name of religion, against the Ottoman Empire. However, its true intention was to destroy Venice and share its territorial possessions among the allies. Venice was identified by the League as a traitor of Christianity because it collaborated with the Ottomans by providing them with resources and manpower in exchange for trading concessions in North Africa.
In early-1509, the members of the League threatened Venice on two fronts the northeast and the southwest. Initially, Venice tried to split the League by offering territories to its members in return for their promise to withdraw from the alliance. However, Venice was unsuccessful as the alliance was determined to bring about its fall. Realising that its initial attempt was futile, Venice then called on the other mainland states to collaborate in the name of protecting the Italian peninsula from European powers like France. However, this attempt was also unsuccessful. In many of the confrontations, Venice proved too weak to defend itself. Many Venetian nobles who had settled in the mainland withdrew into the lagoon as the city-state prepared for war. It appeared that an attack on the lagoon was imminent.
The League began to fall apart when the Pope, on realising the ambitions of France, decided to turn against it. Venice then made use of this opportunity to ally with the Pope against France. This signalled the collapse of the League and the end of the threat against the city-state. In the end, Venice managed to regain most of the territories it had lost in this period.
What was Venice's connection with the Byzantine Empire?
Venice started out as a vassal state belonging to the Byzantine Empire. When the Byzantine Empire started to establish itself as the Eastern Roman Empire, it was more concerned with maintaining internal stability and expanding its territorial control. For those states that were further from Constantinople, the centre of the Byzantine government, their acknowledgement of its overlordship required them to send tribute and offer military help whenever necessary. While the Byzantine Emperor was busy consolidating his rule in newly acquired territories, those already in his possession were left to develop on their own. Venice was one such example.
The Byzantine Emperor only returned to assert control over Venice when the Franks threatened to take over the control of the lagoon in 810. With this, Venice renewed its acknowledgment of the Byzantine Emperor as its overlord. Once this relationship was re-established, Venice continued to develop under the protection of the Byzantine Empire with little intervention. Instead of appointing an official to rule Venice on behalf of the Byzantine Emperor; the Venetians were allowed to elect their own leader, known as the Doge, as they had provided aid to the Byzantine Empire in times of need.
The recognition of the Byzantine overlordship was important for Venice because it allowed the city-state to enjoy relative peace and to develop. The Empire also granted Venice special trading rights in return for its military and maritime support. When the Byzantine Empire was weak, Venice even took over the role of patrolling the Adriatic Sea to protect trade and the sovereignty of her overlord.
This relationship changed when Venice grew stronger and looked to expand its territorial control to advance trade. The opportunity came when Venice was approached to provide maritime transport for the Fourth Crusade in 1204. The original objective of the Crusade was to free Jerusalem from Muslim rule. As the army gathered in Venice to be transported to Jerusalem, Venice realised that the Crusaders did not have the money to hire its service. The Doge, Enrico Dandolo, then decided to capitalise on the situation by asking the Crusaders to help Venice conquer certain territories as a form of repayment for services rendered by the city-state. These territories included Constantinople.
The Byzantine Empire was a pale shadow of her former self although it was still Venice's overlord. This was partly due to the power struggle for the Byzantine throne. When the new emperor was enthroned, he favoured Genoa and Pisa (who had helped him in the quest for the throne) instead of Venice. Such polices were disadvantageous to Venice as the favourable trading terms it used to enjoy in Constantinople were revoked. This affected Venice's trade in the Black Sea adversely. In order to preserve and promote Venice's commercial interests, Doge Enrico Dandolo seized the opportunity to obtain the help of the Crusaders to sack Constantinople. Despite Constantinople being a Christian state, Doge Enrico Dandolo was able to persuade the Crusaders to help by offering them a large share of the war booty following their success. With the success at Constantinople, Venice ceased to be a feudal state of the Byzantine Empire and became instead an empire itself.
What was Venice's main competitor, Genoa, like?
Venice's main competitor Genoa was a city-state located on the Italian peninsula. It too was dependent on trade for its wealth but its political system differed from Venice. Instead of selecting their leaders, the Genoese nobility entrusted the highest rank in the government to men they employed to rule the city-state. In today’s terms, the concept worked somewhat like a Chief Executive Officer running a large organisation. The Genoese adopted this system because they wanted to prevent _rivalry among the nobility. By employing a third party to rule the city-state, they hoped to achieve fairness in the government. Even so, Genoa was plagued with internal strife and political unrests. This greatly affected its development and was the main reason for its inability to continue to compete with Venice after the Fourth Genoese war of 1378.
Like the Venetians, the Genoese were skilful sailors who possessed a sharp acumen for trade and business. Besides being active in the eastern Mediterranean Sea, the Genoese expressed an interest in extending trade into the Middle East. Like the Venetians, the Genoese were particularly competitive in gaining good trading terms from Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, by offering maritime transport services and soldiers to the Byzantine Emperor.
In its rivalry with Venice and other maritime city-states like Pisa and Florence, Genoa was rather piratical in its behaviour. This was the norm among the other maritime city-states including Venice, during the medieval times. To begin with, Genoa would try to obtain control in certain territories crucial for trade. These could be ports situated along the Coasts or islands in the Mediterranean Sea. Once they were in control, they would adopt protectionist policies against traders from other states, sometimes attacking and confiscating goods from non-Genoese traders who called at their ports. They would also launch surprise attacks on Venetian ships passing through their ports. In addition, Genoese traders who were sailing from port to port would attack ships flying the Venetian flag in the hope of confiscating the lucrative goods on board.
This war was the most significant for several reasons. Firstly, it gave rise to a change in Venice’s foreign policy. During the war, Genoa had formed an alliance with Venice’s neighbours, the King of Hungary and the Lord of Padua. This alliance was threatening because Venice found itself surrounded by enemies on three fronts, with Genoa attacking at Venice's doorstep. It was after this war that Venice decided to participate in the power struggle in the mainland with the objective of building a buffer zone around the lagoon for its protection.
Secondly, it was through this war that Venice’s weaknesses were uncovered. Following the plague of 1374, there were fewer people to be conscripted; and those who survived were also less willing to participate in the war. Another weakness in the social fabric of Venice was in the gap between the nobles and the commoners. Having acquired more wealth, the nobles had become arrogant and distant from the latter. This made the commoners less willing to fight under the command of the nobles, whom they once regarded as leaders.
This crisis was only resolved when Doge Andrea Contarini called upon an outstanding commoner to serve alongside a noble in the command of the fleets. Doge Andrea Contarini also won the support of the Venetians by turning their attention to their common enemy, Genoa. Eventually, Venice succeeded in defending the lagoon. However, Venice could not be considered to have won the Fourth Genoese War. This was because both Venice and Genoa suffered heavy losses. Based on the terms of peace, they were keener to end the confrontation than to negotiate for territories or trade terms. This showed how weakened and tired Venice and Genoa were as a result of the war. After this war, Genoa plunged into internal strife and civil war and did not return to challenge Venice again.
What is the Black Death and how did it impact Venice?
The plague is a disease that is spread by the fleas found on rats and other rodents. It was known as the Black Death in medieval times, a reference to its ability to wipe out an entire population within a short span of time. There are a number of variations of the disease but generally, its victims developed fever and swellings around the armpits and groin. They eventually die of blood poisoning unless their immune system could overcome the bacterium.
During the medieval times, it was said that the plague was transmitted from Asia to Europe via the trade routes. The population of Venice suffered their first bout of plague in 1348 resulting in the death of half its population. The disease struck Venice twice more during the 16th and 17th century: in 1575, killing 51,000 of its people; and in 1630, claiming 50,000 more lives.
The plagues were detrimental to Venice politically, militarily and economically. As the plagues did not choose its victims, both the rich and the poor were affected. Since the nobles constituted the ruling class in Venice, a reduction in their numbers affected Venice's ability to find nobles of suitable calibre to serve as leaders. This, in turn, affected the quality of the decisions made by the government.
With its population decimated and her territories expanding, Venice was also unable to depend on its own people to defend the lagoon or protect her territories gained through conquests. This explained why mercenaries were employed as a solution to Venice's need for soldiers from the 15th century onwards.
As a trading port, Venice was even more vulnerable to the disease. Trading ships brought the disease with them after visiting places already infected with it. Trade suffered. The impact was not limited to people (including the traders) dying from the disease, but potential traders also shunned the city-state for fear of being infected as well. Those who were yet to be infected also preferred to flee the lagoon for their own protection. As a result of reduced trade, Venice's economy suffered.
Since there was no cure, Venice handled the disease the same way most of the city-states were doing then. It set up quarantine hospitals in far-away islands in the lagoon to minimise the spread of the disease. When the disease was rife, all ships arriving in Venice were required to call at these islands for screening. However, this only served to encourage the spread of the diseases on these islands. Those who died of the disease were also brought to these islands to be buried.
What was the Ottoman Empire?
The Ottoman Empire was a Turkish Muslim empire that comprised large parts of the Middle East as well as territories in Europe from the 14th to the 20th centuries. It originated around 1300 as a small Turkish state in Asia Minor and defeated the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire in 1453 to become the predominant power in theMediterranean region.
Named after the empire’s founder Osman, the Ottomans were a nomadic Turkish tribe which originated from Central Asia. In the early 14th century, it ruled a small territory in Eastern Turkey. The Ottomans were allocated a parcel of land by a Turkish tribe for assisting them in a battle against the Byzantines. They were one of several Turkish tribes who were a constant threat to the Byzantine Empire. The Ottomans also competed with rival Turkish tribes for territories. In addition, the Byzantines and other smaller Christian states also formed alliances with the Ottomans, who were predominantly Muslim, in order to defeat rival kingdoms.
By 1400 the Ottomans managed to extend their influence over much of Anatolia, the Asian part of modern day Turkey. The Ottomans continued to expand while their rivals experienced internal conflicts or were preoccupied with fighting one another. As a result, the Ottomans territorial expansion incorporated parts of rival Turkish kingdoms and even outlying regions of the Byzantine Empire.
In 1453 Sultan Mehmed II captured Constantinople and renamed it Istanbul. The Ottoman Empire expanded under Sultan Selim I (1512-1520) and his Son, Sultan Suleyman (1520-1566). The empire experience its greatest expansion under the latter's rule. At its height, the Ottoman Empire controlled North Africa, the Middle East, the Mediterranean and the Balkans.
How was the Ottoman's relationship with Venice?
The Ottomans’ relations with Venice were initially cordial but gradually deteriorated. This was because Ottoman expansion was, in part, at the expense of Venetian possessions and prosperity. Some factors that influenced Ottoman-Venetian relations were the personalities and policies of the respective Sultans and Doges, as well as the political situation in Europe at that time. For example, Ottoman rulers like Sultan Mehmed II and Sultan Suleyman embarked on numerous military campaigns to expand the empire. Like Venice, Ottoman motives for establishing alliances were usually out of convenience rather than genuine attempts to establish diplomatic relations.
With the capture of Constantinople, the Ottomans succeeded in controlling the lucrative maritime trade in the Mediterranean. Consequently, Venetian trade dominance was adversely affected. Venetian traders continued to trade in ports controlled by the Ottomans, subjected to the goodwill of the Sultan. When relations between the two powers soured, commerce and movement in Ottoman-controlled territories were greatly restricted. Turkish pirates were also given authority to attack and plunder Venetian (and other European) vessels. It became evident to the Venetians that they would not be able to defeat the Ottomans as the latter possessed a much larger standing army. In the 16th century, the Venetians pursued a policy of conciliation towards the Ottomans. However; Venice was forced to engage in conflict due to unreasonable terms set by the Ottoman Sultan and to demands made by various European states to engage the Ottoman enemy. The humiliating treaties signed by Venice in 1540 and 1573 drained her treasury, restricted trade and movement of her merchants and legitimised the loss of Venetian territories to the Ottomans.
On hindsight, the Fourth Crusade led by Doge Enrico Dandolo, which turned into the Conquest of Constantinople instead of freeing Jerusalem from Muslim control, could have contributed to the eventual downfall of Venice because the Byzantine Empire was weakened so much that she was unable to resist the invading Ottomans. Thus, the buffer which protected Venice and Europe from the Ottomans was removed.
Why was the rise of Napoleon important in European history? Napoleon was important in European history because he promoted the ideas of the French Revolution that threatened the stability of the old European kingdoms. The ideas of the French revolution included such rights as the right of the common people to choose their own leaders. It was revolutionary because in the past, the leaders of most nations were kings and nobles who were not elected by the people.
What lessons can Singapore learn from Venice?
While it is obvious that conditions between Venice in the past and Singapore today are very different, some basic principles of success can be drawn from a study of these two countries. Good governance, sound principles and a committed citizenry are principles which are timeless and universally applicable across states and cultures.
Capable and Committed Leadership
The rise of Venice was possible because its leaders were willing to place state interests above their personal interests. They were forward-looking and capable. Later, the leaders who came to power were neither able to continue the hard work of their predecessors nor had their perseverance. They neglected their responsibilities and chose to adopt lavish lifestyles. This eventually brought about the downfall of the city-state.
As seen in Venice, good leadership may not continue forever. It is the duty of every citizen to elect into government the right persons who would lead by example. Venice was not able to sustain its dominance of the Mediterranean Sea partly because of the weak process of selecting its military leaders.
Adaptability
When Venice was at its peak, the Venetians kept themselves updated on what was happening around them. They kept up with the times and were always improving themselves, as seen in the new initiatives Venetians introduced in the banking services. They were flexible and adapted well to internal and external circumstances when the need arose. This can be seen in the varied approaches they took in establishing relations with weak and strong states.
Likewise, for Singapore to prosper, it has to be aware of the changes in the world and be quick to respond to them. It is important for every citizen to upgrade his skills and seize new opportunities.
Good International Relations
When the Ottomans attacked the Venetians, none of the other Italian city-states came to help the Venetians, even though they could be the next states to be threatened if Venice were defeated. This was because Venice was arrogant and dubious in its relations with these states. While some of its policies were pragmatic and beneficial, others, like collaboration with pirates, made Venice lose its credibility.
From the experience of Venice, we see that it is important for a country to have friends in the international community. There is a need to understand other countries and work closely with them, and to build up a reputation of being trustworthy and friendly.
Strong Defence Force
Though a country has to maintain good relations with other countries, it must also be well-prepared for war. This is only possible with a strong defence system and a reliable military force. Unfortunately, the mercenaries who served Venice were not loyal to the city-state, as Venice was not their homeland. In the face of defeat, they left Venice instead of defending it. Even the Venetian leaders themselves were more concerned for their own safety and the safety of their families than for the city-state. It is thus important for a country to provide an all-rounded education of the importance of defence to the general public.
A Committed Citizenry
At the height of its glory, the Venetians took pride in and committed themselves to the well-being of Venice. They were prepared to sacrifice their wealth and even their lives to counter Genoa's threat in the 14th century. Nevertheless, complacency set in and the subsequent generations of Venetians began to take success for granted. This was a major reason for their failure.
Singapore faced a few major economic setbacks in 1985, 1997 and 2007. On these occasions, the government introduced measures such as wage cuts to tide the country over the bad times. Singaporeans, however, rallied behind the government and showed their full support. This allowed the whole nation to recover from the economic downturn faster than expected. Singapore may face similar difficulties in future. Singaporeans must therefore be prepared to make sacrifices when the country faces setbacks.
The success of Singapore did not happen by chance. What we have today is the result of the hard work and sacrifice of our predecessors. The infrastructure of Singapore can be built by the government, and talent can be imported, but it is the commitment of each citizen that makes a country prosper.
